Glossary
Music terms, explained simply
Short explanations of the Hindustani and Western terms used on Ragapedia, each with its source. Look for the small beside a term to open its explanation in place.
Ragapedia wrote these explanations from the cited sources. A musician has not yet reviewed them.
A
- Accidental · Western
A sharp, flat or natural sign that alters a written note. Accidentals specify pitch changes within the rules of the notation.
Also written: accidentals, sharp, sharps, flat, flats, natural sign, double sharp, double flat
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §3; G4 §2.
Related: Enharmonic spelling, Pitch
- Achal · Hindustani
Swaras without komal or tivra alternatives in this Hindustani framework: Sa and Pa. Achal does not mean one fixed frequency for every musician.
Also written: achala, achal swara, achal svara
- Alankar · Hindustani
A repeating note pattern practised through ascending and descending positions. Such exercises help build control of the voice or instrument.
In this practice context, NIOS also calls an alankar a palta. The broader word can refer to musical ornamentation; patterned exercises are not the whole range of ornaments.
Also written: alankara, alankars, alankaras, palta, paltas
- Source: NIOS, Hindustani Music (242), Book 1: Theory, ch. 1, Introduction of Hindustani Music, pp. 1–13, §1.10, p. 8.
- Source: Same project, Melody, “Ornamentation,” final paragraph.
- Alap · Hindustani
An exploration that unfolds a raag’s melodic character. Alap commonly introduces notes and phrases without a fixed taal accompaniment.
Also written: alaap, alapa, alaps
- Source: Suvarnalata Rao and Preeti Rao (2014), An Overview of Hindustani Music in the Context of Computational Musicology, Journal of New Music Research 43(1), DOI 10.1080/09298215.2013.831109, §5.2, PDF pp. 6–7, respective subheadings.
- Andolan · Hindustani
A slow pitch oscillation that shapes a note. The movement is learned in a raag’s context, rather than applied identically to every note.
Also written: andol, andolans
- Source: Same project, Melody, “Ornamentation,” named andol/andolan paragraph.
- Antara · Hindustani
A further section of a composition after the sthayi. NIOS’s khayal example places its antara after the opening section.
Also written: antaras
- Source: Same book, ch. 4, Study of Forms: Dhrupad and Dhamar, pp. 28–32, §§4.1–4.3, pp. 28–30.
- Source: NIOS, Hindustani Music (242), Book 2: Practical, ch. 1, Chota Khayal, pp. 1–17, pp. 1–2 for a khayal example.
- Anuvadi · Hindustani
A raag’s other regular swaras besides vadi and samvadi in this teaching framework. They still contribute to its melodic development.
Also written: anuvaadi, anuvadi swara, anuvadi svara
- Source: Same book, ch. 2, Elements of Raga, pp. 14–20, §§2.2.6–2.2.9, pp. 17–18.
- Aroha · Hindustani
A raag’s ascending note movement in a teaching outline. It is read alongside descending movement and characteristic phrases.
NIOS §2.2.3 mistakenly calls ascending movement ‘Avroha’. Its heading, answer on p. 19 and glossary on p. 20 confirm Aroha. An outline alone does not capture all phrase rules.
Also written: aaroh, aroh, aaroha, arohan, arohana, aarohan, aarohana
- Source: Same book, ch. 2, Elements of Raga, pp. 14–20, §§2.2.3–2.2.4, pp. 16–17; §2.3 answer 1, p. 19; glossary entries 2–3, p. 20 (correcting the apparent ‘Avroha’ typo in §2.2.3).
- Articulation · Western
The way notes begin, connect and end. Markings such as staccato and legato distinguish detached delivery from smooth connection.
Also written: articulations, articulation marking, articulation markings
Related: Tie, Dynamics, Note value
- Augmentation dot · Western
A single dot that lengthens a written note or rest by half its original value. This duration mark differs from a dot used for articulation.
Also written: augmentation dots, dotted note, dotted notes, dotted rest, dotted rests
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §1; G2 §1; G4 §1.
Related: Note value, Rest, Articulation
- Avaroha · Hindustani
A raag’s descending note movement in a teaching outline. It may use notes or turns differently from the ascent.
Also written: avroh, avaroh, avroha, avrohan, avarohan, avarohana, avarohas
- Source: Same book, ch. 2, Elements of Raga, pp. 14–20, §§2.2.3–2.2.4, pp. 16–17; §2.3 answer 1, p. 19; glossary entries 2–3, p. 20 (correcting the apparent ‘Avroha’ typo in §2.2.3).
- Avartan · Hindustani
One complete traversal of a taal. Repeating avartans return to the beginning of the same rhythmic cycle.
Also written: avartana, aavartan, avartans, avartanas, aavartans
- Source: Same book, ch. 3, Elements of Tala, pp. 21–27, §§3.1–3.3.1, pp. 21–22.
B
- Bandish · Hindustani
A composed piece that anchors raag development. Its melody, words and rhythmic setting provide material for elaboration.
Also written: bandishes
- Source: Suvarnalata Rao and Preeti Rao (2014), An Overview of Hindustani Music in the Context of Computational Musicology, Journal of New Music Research 43(1), DOI 10.1080/09298215.2013.831109, §5.2, PDF pp. 6–7, respective subheadings.
- Bar · Western
One notated grouping of musical time, separated by barlines. Its usual duration comes from the time signature.
Also written: bars, measure, measures
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §2; G3 §1; G5 §1.
- Source: Mark Gotham, Chelsey Hamm and Kris Shaffer, Simple Meter and Time Signatures, “Terminology” / “Time Signatures”.
- Source: Trinity College London, Theory of Music Syllabus, Grades 1–8, from 2009, online edition April 2026, 36 PDF pages, G7 p. 29.
Related: Meter, Time signature
- Bhatkhande notation · Hindustani
A Hindustani notation system using swara names and marks for altered notes, register, duration and taal positions.
NIOS uses a line below for komal, a vertical mark above Ma for tivra, and dots below or above for low or high register. Dashes extend note duration in matras. Cycle marks include × for sam, 0 for khali and numbers for other claps. Rupak’s first beat can be both sam and khali; chart conventions can differ.
Also written: bhatkhande notation system
- Source: Same book, ch. 5, Notation System of Hindustani Music, pp. 33–38, §5.3, pp. 35–36 (pitch, octave and duration symbols); §5.3, p. 36 (cycle symbols).
- Source: University of Washington Music 428, Some commonly used Thekas, n.d. (no author named; hosted on Ramesh Gangolli's faculty site; corrected 10 Oct 2026 from "Rajeev"), Entry 4 for Rupak’s alternative notation.
- Blues scale · Western
A pitch collection commonly taught for blues melody and improvisation. The common minor blues scale adds a lowered fifth to minor pentatonic.
A scale diagram is a study aid. It does not fully describe blues phrasing, expressive pitch treatment or the variety of blues practices.
Also written: blues scales, minor blues scale
- Source: Trinity College London, Theory of Music Syllabus, Grades 1–8, from 2009, online edition April 2026, 36 PDF pages, G5 p. 23, Pitch §10; G6 p. 27, Pitch §15.
Related: Pentatonic scale, Improvisation
- Bol · Hindustani
A spoken syllable, such as Dha or Dhin, used to remember and communicate percussion sounds. Sequences of these syllables help teach and recite rhythmic patterns.
Also written: bols
- Source: Same book, ch. 3, Elements of Tala, pp. 21–27, §§3.3.4–3.3.5, p. 23.
- Source: Ajay Srinivasamurthy, Andre Holzapfel, Kaustuv Kanti Ganguli and Xavier Serra (2017), Aspects of Tempo and Rhythmic Elaboration in Hindustani Music: A Corpus Study, Frontiers in Digital Humanities 4:20, DOI 10.3389/fdigh.2017.00020, §1.3, Table 2.
C
- Cadence · Western
A phrase’s closing harmony that brings it to a point of rest or continuation. Different cadence patterns create different degrees of closure.
Also written: cadences
- Source: John Peterson, Introduction to Harmony, Cadences, and Phrase Endings, “Introduction to Cadences”.
- Source: Trinity College London, Theory of Music Syllabus, Grades 1–8, from 2009, online edition April 2026, 36 PDF pages, G6 p. 27, Pitch §12.
- Chalan · Hindustani
The way a raag moves through its notes: characteristic turns, phrases and patterns of emphasis. These behaviours help distinguish raags with similar pitch sets.
Also written: chalana, chaalan
- Source: Same project, Melody, “Rag”.
- Source: Achintya Prahlad (2023), Quantifying Alpatva (Scarcity) and Bahutva (Abundance): A Comparative Study of the Scale-identical Hindustānī Rāgas Bhūpālī and Deskār, Analytical Approaches to World Musics 11(1), ¶12, items 7 and 12; ¶13–15.
- Source: Suvarnalata Rao and Preeti Rao (2014), An Overview of Hindustani Music in the Context of Computational Musicology, Journal of New Music Research 43(1), DOI 10.1080/09298215.2013.831109, §5.1, PDF pp. 5–6.
- Clef · Western
A sign that assigns pitches to a staff’s lines and spaces. Different clefs make different pitch ranges easier to write and read.
Also written: clefs, treble clef, bass clef, alto clef, tenor clef
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §3; G4 §2.
D
- Dhamar · Hindustani
A vocal form associated with Holi themes and the fourteen-matra Dhamar taal, traditionally accompanied by pakhawaj.
The same name identifies the vocal form and its associated rhythmic cycle. This entry explains the form; the cycle’s bol chart needs a separate citation.
Also written: dhammar, dhamars
- Source: Same book, ch. 4, Study of Forms: Dhrupad and Dhamar, pp. 28–32, §§4.1–4.3, pp. 28–30.
- Source: NIOS, Hindustani Music (242), Book 2: Practical, ch. 1, Chota Khayal, pp. 1–17, pp. 1–2 for a khayal example.
- Dhrupad · Hindustani
A Hindustani vocal form built around composed text, raag and taal, traditionally with pakhawaj accompaniment.
Also written: dhruvapada, dhrupads
- Source: Same book, ch. 4, Study of Forms: Dhrupad and Dhamar, pp. 28–32, §§4.1–4.3, pp. 28–30.
- Source: NIOS, Hindustani Music (242), Book 2: Practical, ch. 1, Chota Khayal, pp. 1–17, pp. 1–2 for a khayal example.
- Dictation · Western
Writing down musical material heard by ear. Dictation practice develops recognition of pitch, rhythm and patterns.
Dictation is one ear-training activity. Singing, identifying musical relationships and listening in manageable chunks can also support this learning.
Also written: musical dictation, melodic dictation, rhythmic dictation
- Source: Samuel Brady, Chelsey Hamm and Kris Shaffer, The Basics of Sight-Singing and Dictation, Opening definitions and dictation strategy sections.
Related: Solfège, Interval, Note value
- Dynamics · Both traditions
Changes in loudness guided by markings such as piano, forte or crescendo. The performance context determines the resulting sound level.
Also written: dynamic marking, dynamic markings
Related: Loudness, Articulation
E
- Enharmonic spelling · Western
Different note spellings that sound alike in equal temperament, such as C-sharp and D-flat. The spelling can still matter for musical meaning.
Also written: enharmonic, enharmonic equivalent, enharmonic equivalents, enharmonic notation
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §3; G4 §2.
Related: Accidental, Interval
F
- Form · Western
The organisation of a piece into ideas, phrases and larger sections. Repetition, variation and contrast help make that structure audible.
Also written: musical form, musical forms
- Source: John Peterson, Foundational Concepts for Phrase-Level Forms, “Hierarchy,” “Motives,” segmentation section (“The Idea Level, the Phrase, and Segmentation Analysis”).
G
- Gamak · Hindustani
A forceful pitch movement or oscillation that shapes a note or phrase. Its precise execution depends on the style and melodic context.
Also written: gamaka, gamaks, gamakas
- Source: Same project, Melody, “Ornamentation,” named gamak paragraph.
- Gharana · Hindustani
A lineage or school of musical training and performance. Its inherited practices can shape how musicians interpret and develop music.
Also written: gharanas
- Source: Same project, Glossary, “gharana”.
- Source: Suvarnalata Rao and Preeti Rao (2014), An Overview of Hindustani Music in the Context of Computational Musicology, Journal of New Music Research 43(1), DOI 10.1080/09298215.2013.831109, Introduction, PDF p. 1.
I
- Improvisation · Western
The development of musical ideas while performing. Varying a known melody or motive is one practical starting point in the cited folk and general improvisation curricula.
Also written: improvisational variation
- Source: Matt Glaser (2011), Five Levels: Variations on a Simple Melody as an Intro to Improvisation for Folk Musicians, Berklee Today, Summer 2011, Levels 1–5.
- Source: Berklee Online, Basic Improvisation, public course syllabus, n.d., Lessons 2 and 5 provide curriculum context.
Related: Motive, Pentatonic scale, Blues scale
- Interval · Western
The distance between two pitches. Western interval names combine a number, such as third, with a quality, such as major or minor.
Inverting an interval moves one note by an octave past the other. Within an octave, the interval numbers add to nine; major and minor qualities exchange, while perfect remains perfect.
Also written: intervals
- Source: Chelsey Hamm and Bryn Hughes, Intervals, Named sections: “Size”; “Perfect, Major, and Minor Qualities”; “Augmented and Diminished Qualities”.
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G5 §3.
J
- Jati · Hindustani
A classification of a raag by its note counts in ascent and descent. Audav means five, shadav six and sampurna seven; the two directions can have different counts.
This entry describes Hindustani raag jati. The site also uses Carnatic rhythmic jati, which needs its own source locator and definition.
Also written: jaati, raga jati, raag jati, jatis
- Source: Same book, ch. 2, Elements of Raga, pp. 14–20, §2.2.2, p. 16.
K
- Kan · Hindustani
A brief touch of a neighbouring pitch that colours a main note. This grace-note touch forms part of the phrase.
Also written: kann, kan swara, kan svara
- Source: Same project, Melody, “Ornamentation,” named kan paragraph.
- Khali · Hindustani
A wave-marked position or division in a taal’s hand-counting pattern. Khali is shown with 0 in Bhatkhande notation; it does not require silence.
Also written: khaali
- Source: Same book, ch. 3, Elements of Tala, pp. 21–27, §§3.3.7–3.3.9, p. 24.
- Source: Ajay Srinivasamurthy, Andre Holzapfel, Kaustuv Kanti Ganguli and Xavier Serra (2017), Aspects of Tempo and Rhythmic Elaboration in Hindustani Music: A Corpus Study, Frontiers in Digital Humanities 4:20, DOI 10.3389/fdigh.2017.00020, Fig. 1 and §3.2.8.
- Komal · Hindustani
The lowered form of Re, Ga, Dha or Ni relative to its shuddha form. It describes a swara form, not a soft playing instruction.
Also written: komal swara, komal svara
L
- Laya · Hindustani
The pace of musical time. Vilambit, madhya and drut describe slow, medium and fast laya relative to the performance context, not fixed universal speeds.
The saved NIOS passage defines laya as tempo but then gives rigid doubling relationships. Its check stays false because it conflicts with the corrected relative categories, which follow the source map’s AR/S17 guidance and await passage review.
Also written: lay, vilambit laya, madhya laya, drut laya
- Source: Same book, ch. 3, Elements of Tala, pp. 21–27, §3.3.3, p. 23 (tempo definition; fixed doubling contradicts the corrected relative categories).
- Source: Same project, Rhythm, “Lay”.
- Source: Ajay Srinivasamurthy, Andre Holzapfel, Kaustuv Kanti Ganguli and Xavier Serra (2017), Aspects of Tempo and Rhythmic Elaboration in Hindustani Music: A Corpus Study, Frontiers in Digital Humanities 4:20, DOI 10.3389/fdigh.2017.00020, §2.1 for tempo evidence.
- Layakari · Hindustani
Rhythmic variety created by changing how phrases subdivide or relate to the underlying pulse. This need not mean changing the base tempo.
Also written: laykari, laya kari, layakaari
- Source: Suvarnalata Rao and Preeti Rao (2014), An Overview of Hindustani Music in the Context of Computational Musicology, Journal of New Music Research 43(1), DOI 10.1080/09298215.2013.831109, §5.2, PDF pp. 6–7, “Layakari” (especially PDF p. 6).
- Source: Ajay Srinivasamurthy, Andre Holzapfel, Kaustuv Kanti Ganguli and Xavier Serra (2017), Aspects of Tempo and Rhythmic Elaboration in Hindustani Music: A Corpus Study, Frontiers in Digital Humanities 4:20, DOI 10.3389/fdigh.2017.00020, §§1.3, 3.2.
- Loudness · Both traditions
How strong or soft a sound seems. Changing the force of singing or striking an instrument changes its sound level.
Also written: sound intensity
- Source: NIOS, Hindustani Music (242), Book 1: Theory, ch. 1, Introduction of Hindustani Music, pp. 1–13, §§1.3–1.4.1, pp. 2–3.
M
- Madhya · Hindustani
The middle register for a swara. Bhatkhande notation normally leaves this register unmarked.
Madhya also means medium in ‘madhya laya’. That tempo use is explained under Laya; it is distinct from the middle pitch register.
Also written: madhya saptak, madhya saptaka
- Source: NIOS, Hindustani Music (242), Book 1: Theory, ch. 1, Introduction of Hindustani Music, pp. 1–13, §1.8, pp. 6–7.
- Major scale · Western
Seven notes organised around a tonic using a particular sequence of whole and half steps. Scale degrees identify each note’s position.
The ascending step pattern is whole, whole, half, whole, whole, whole, half. A scale names a pitch organisation; it does not by itself specify a raag’s melodic behaviour.
Also written: major scales
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §4.
- Source: Chelsey Hamm and Bryn Hughes, Major Scales, Scale Degrees, and Key Signatures, “Scale Degrees, Solfège, and Scale-Degree Names.”
Related: Tonic, Scale degree, Minor scale
- Mandra · Hindustani
The low register, where a swara lies below its madhya counterpart. Bhatkhande notation marks this register with a dot below the swara.
Also written: mandra saptak, mandra saptaka
- Source: NIOS, Hindustani Music (242), Book 1: Theory, ch. 1, Introduction of Hindustani Music, pp. 1–13, §1.8, pp. 6–7.
- Matra · Hindustani
One unit of time within a taal. Matras locate beats and rhythmic events inside the cycle; their duration depends on the tempo.
Also written: maatra, matras, maatras
- Source: Same book, ch. 3, Elements of Tala, pp. 21–27, §3.3.2, pp. 22–23.
- Meend · Hindustani
A continuous pitch glide connecting notes. Its direction and shape belong to the melodic phrase, rather than being a jump between separate notes.
Also written: mind, meends
- Source: Same project, Melody, “Ornamentation,” named mind/meend paragraph.
- Meter · Western
The organisation of recurring beat groups. Simple meter divides beats into two; compound meter divides them into three; irregular groupings combine unequal groups.
Also written: metre, meters, metres, simple meter, simple metre, compound meter, compound metre, irregular meter, irregular metre
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §2; G3 §1; G5 §1.
- Source: Mark Gotham, Chelsey Hamm and Kris Shaffer, Simple Meter and Time Signatures, “Terminology” / “Time Signatures”.
- Source: Trinity College London, Theory of Music Syllabus, Grades 1–8, from 2009, online edition April 2026, 36 PDF pages, G7 p. 29.
Related: Time signature, Bar, Tuplet
- Minor scale · Western
Notes organised around a tonic with a minor third above it. Natural, harmonic and melodic minor differ especially in their sixth and seventh degrees.
Relative major and minor share a key signature but have different tonics. Harmonic minor raises natural minor’s seventh. In classical melodic-minor teaching, the sixth and seventh rise ascending and return to natural-minor forms descending; other practices can use the ascending form in both directions.
Also written: minor scales, natural minor, harmonic minor, melodic minor
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G2 §3; G3 §3.
- Source: Trinity College London, Theory of Music Syllabus, Grades 1–8, from 2009, online edition April 2026, 36 PDF pages, G6 “Pitch,” p. 26 §2.
Related: Major scale, Tonic, Mode
- Mode · Western
A diatonic pitch collection organised around a particular tonic and step pattern. A modern mode names pitch relationships, not a complete raag or performance style.
Modern Aeolian is natural minor. Compared with natural minor, Dorian raises degree 6. Compared with major, Mixolydian lowers degree 7 and Lydian raises degree 4. Historical church-mode practice and modern parallel scale comparisons are distinct contexts.
Also written: modes, diatonic mode, diatonic modes, aeolian, dorian, mixolydian, lydian, ionian, phrygian, locrian
- Source: Trinity College London, Theory of Music Syllabus, Grades 1–8, from 2009, online edition April 2026, 36 PDF pages, G6 p. 27, §§16–17; G7 p. 29, §§3–4; G8 p. 32, §§2–3.
- Source: Mark Gotham and Megan Lavengood, Diatonic Modes, “Color notes” table.
- Source: RSL Awards, Learn Music Theory / Popular Music Theory, current official online grade specifications, n.d., G7 “Popular Music Harmony.”
Related: Tonic, Major scale, Minor scale, Raag
- Modulation · Western
A change of tonal centre during a piece. A modulation establishes a new key context rather than simply moving the whole piece to another starting pitch.
Also written: modulate, modulating, modulations
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G5 §2.
- Source: Trinity College London, Theory of Music Syllabus, Grades 1–8, from 2009, online edition April 2026, 36 PDF pages, G5 p. 24, Pitch §15 (transposition; corrected from §§17–18), §§17–18 (modulation); G7 p. 29, Pitch §7 (modulation).
Related: Tonic, Transposition, Cadence
- Motive · Western
A short musical idea that can recur or be varied. A motive helps connect phrases and larger sections.
Also written: motif, motives, motifs, melodic motif
- Source: John Peterson, Foundational Concepts for Phrase-Level Forms, “Hierarchy,” “Motives,” segmentation section (“The Idea Level, the Phrase, and Segmentation Analysis”).
Related: Phrase, Form, Improvisation
- Murki · Hindustani
A quick, compact turn through nearby notes that decorates a note or phrase. The note sequence and delivery depend on the musical context.
Also written: murkis
- Source: Same project, Melody, “Ornamentation,” named murki paragraph.
N
- Note value · Western
The duration of a written note relative to other notes. Its symbol gives a duration; tempo determines how much clock time that duration takes.
Also written: note values
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §1; G2 §1; G4 §1.
Related: Rest, Augmentation dot, Tie, Tempo
- Nyas · Hindustani
The act of settling on a note to shape a phrase. Which notes receive this repose, and in what context, helps express a raag’s identity.
Also written: nyaas, nyasa, nyas swara
- Source: Same project, Melody, “Rag”.
- Source: Achintya Prahlad (2023), Quantifying Alpatva (Scarcity) and Bahutva (Abundance): A Comparative Study of the Scale-identical Hindustānī Rāgas Bhūpālī and Deskār, Analytical Approaches to World Musics 11(1), ¶12, items 7 and 12; ¶13–15.
- Source: Suvarnalata Rao and Preeti Rao (2014), An Overview of Hindustani Music in the Context of Computational Musicology, Journal of New Music Research 43(1), DOI 10.1080/09298215.2013.831109, §5.1, PDF pp. 5–6.
O
- Octave · Western
The distance from a note to its next higher or lower version with the same note name, including its accidental. Western interval counting calls this distance an eighth.
Also written: octaves
- Source: Chelsey Hamm and Bryn Hughes, Intervals, Named sections: “Size”; “Perfect, Major, and Minor Qualities”; “Augmented and Diminished Qualities”.
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G5 §3.
- Ornamentation · Western
Additional notes or gestures that decorate a melodic note or line. Western notation may indicate ornaments such as trills, turns and mordents.
Also written: ornament, ornaments, musical ornament
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G4 §5.
- Source: Trinity College London, Theory of Music Syllabus, Grades 1–8, from 2009, online edition April 2026, 36 PDF pages, G5 p. 23, Pitch §12.
Related: Articulation, Meend, Murki
P
- Pakad · Hindustani
A characteristic note phrase that helps identify a raag. A pakad is a useful cue to identity, rather than a substitute for learning the raag’s wider movement.
Also written: pakar, pakads
- Source: Same book, ch. 2, Elements of Raga, pp. 14–20, §2.2.5, p. 17.
- Pedal point · Western
A note held or repeated while the harmony above it changes. Tonic and dominant pedal points are common teaching examples.
TR lists recognition of tonic and dominant pedals as a curriculum requirement. This is an introductory description; a fuller listening lesson needs a cited score or recording example.
Also written: pedal points, pedal tone, pedal tones
- Source: Trinity College London, Theory of Music Syllabus, Grades 1–8, from 2009, online edition April 2026, 36 PDF pages, G6 p. 27, Pitch §10. Curriculum anchor.
- Pentatonic scale · Western
A five-note scale used to organise melody. Major and minor pentatonic are common Western forms; a five-note pitch set alone does not define a raag.
Also written: pentatonic, pentatonic scales, major pentatonic, minor pentatonic
- Source: Trinity College London, Theory of Music Syllabus, Grades 1–8, from 2009, online edition April 2026, 36 PDF pages, G5 p. 23, Pitch §10; G6 p. 27, Pitch §15.
Related: Major scale, Minor scale, Raag
- Phrase · Western
A musical unit with a sense of shape and arrival. Phrase boundaries can be suggested by melody, rhythm, pauses or cadences.
Also written: phrases, musical phrase, musical phrases
- Source: John Peterson, Foundational Concepts for Phrase-Level Forms, “Hierarchy,” “Motives,” segmentation section (“The Idea Level, the Phrase, and Segmentation Analysis”).
- Pitch · Both traditions
How high or low a sound seems. For a regular vibrating sound, a higher vibration frequency gives a higher pitch.
NIOS discusses musical sound, or nada, through pitch, loudness and timbre. Its sample frequencies illustrate pitch differences; they do not fix Sa to one frequency.
Also written: pitches
- Source: NIOS, Hindustani Music (242), Book 1: Theory, ch. 1, Introduction of Hindustani Music, pp. 1–13, §§1.3–1.4.1, pp. 2–3.
- Prahar · Hindustani
A roughly three-hour division used in traditional time-of-day associations for raags. These associations are conventions, not listening prohibitions.
NIOS divides day and night into eight prahars in its account of raag samay (time theory). This does not mean every school gives every raag the same time.
Also written: prahara, prahars, praharas
- Source: Same book, ch. 2, Elements of Raga, pp. 14–20, §2.2.10, p. 18.
- Source: Same project, Aesthetics, “Time theory.”
R
- Raag · Hindustani
A recognisable arrangement of notes and musical behaviour that guides melody. A raag’s identity involves how notes are used, not just a list of pitches.
NIOS presents a traditional teaching framework with note counts and classification rules. These introductory rules are not a complete account of every school or performance.
Also written: raga, rag, ragas, raags, rags
- Source: Same book, ch. 2, Elements of Raga, pp. 14–20, §2.1, pp. 14–15; §2.2.1, p. 15.
- Source: Achintya Prahlad (2023), Quantifying Alpatva (Scarcity) and Bahutva (Abundance): A Comparative Study of the Scale-identical Hindustānī Rāgas Bhūpālī and Deskār, Analytical Approaches to World Musics 11(1), ¶1–3.
- Rasa · Hindustani
Aesthetic flavour and emotional response in music. Traditional raag associations offer an interpretive framework; they do not guarantee the same feeling in every listener.
Also written: ras, rasa theory
- Source: Same project, Aesthetics, “Ras” / “Rag and Ras”.
- Source: Avantika Mathur, Suhas H. Vijayakumar, Bhismadev Chakrabarti and Nandini C. Singh (2015), Emotional responses to Hindustani raga music: the role of musical structure, Frontiers in Psychology 6:513, DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00513, Methods, Results and Discussion.
- Rest · Western
A written duration during which that part does not sound a note. Rest symbols have time values just as note symbols do.
Also written: rests, rest value, rest values
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §1; G2 §1; G4 §1.
Related: Note value, Meter
S
- Sam · Hindustani
The first matra of a taal cycle, a key point of rhythmic return. Sam can coincide with khali, as in Rupak, so it does not always mean a clap.
Also written: sama
- Source: Same book, ch. 3, Elements of Tala, pp. 21–27, §§3.3.7–3.3.9, p. 24.
- Source: Ajay Srinivasamurthy, Andre Holzapfel, Kaustuv Kanti Ganguli and Xavier Serra (2017), Aspects of Tempo and Rhythmic Elaboration in Hindustani Music: A Corpus Study, Frontiers in Digital Humanities 4:20, DOI 10.3389/fdigh.2017.00020, Fig. 1 and §3.2.8.
- Samvadi · Hindustani
The swara ranked next to vadi in a named teaching account. The pair helps describe the raag’s note hierarchy.
Also written: samvaadi, samvadi swara, samvadi svara
- Source: Same book, ch. 2, Elements of Raga, pp. 14–20, §§2.2.6–2.2.9, pp. 17–18.
- Saptak · Hindustani
An octave register for notes. Hindustani teaching commonly distinguishes mandra, madhya and taar saptaks: low, middle and high.
Also written: saptaka, saptaks, saptakas
- Source: NIOS, Hindustani Music (242), Book 1: Theory, ch. 1, Introduction of Hindustani Music, pp. 1–13, §1.8, pp. 6–7.
- Scale degree · Western
A note’s position in a scale, identified by a number or name. The tonic is degree 1; the other degrees are understood in relation to it.
Also written: scale degrees, degree of the scale, degrees of the scale
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §4.
- Source: Chelsey Hamm and Bryn Hughes, Major Scales, Scale Degrees, and Key Signatures, “Scale Degrees, Solfège, and Scale-Degree Names.”
Related: Tonic, Major scale, Solfège
- Shruti · Hindustani
A fine pitch distinction in Indian music. The familiar count of 22 shrutis per saptak is a historical framework, not 22 equal steps required in every performance.
Also written: sruti, shrutis, srutis
- Source: NIOS, Hindustani Music (242), Book 1: Theory, ch. 1, Introduction of Hindustani Music, pp. 1–13, §§1.5–1.6, p. 4.
- Source: Suvarnalata Rao and Preeti Rao (2014), An Overview of Hindustani Music in the Context of Computational Musicology, Journal of New Music Research 43(1), DOI 10.1080/09298215.2013.831109, §3.2, PDF p. 3, for performance and intonation limits.
- Shuddha · Hindustani
The unmodified form of a swara in Hindustani teaching. Re, Ga, Ma, Dha and Ni can also have specified altered forms.
Also written: suddha, shudh, shuddh, shuddha swara, shuddha svara
- Solfège · Western
A way to learn and sing pitch relationships using syllables such as do, re and mi. In movable-do major, do names the tonic and the other syllables name scale degrees.
Also written: solfege, solfeggio, sol-fa, solfa
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §4.
- Source: Chelsey Hamm and Bryn Hughes, Major Scales, Scale Degrees, and Key Signatures, “Scale Degrees, Solfège, and Scale-Degree Names.”
Related: Scale degree, Tonic, Dictation
- Staff · Western
Five lines and the spaces between them on which pitches are written. A clef establishes which note names those positions represent.
Also written: stave, staves, staff notation
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §3; G4 §2.
Related: Clef, Accidental
- Sthayi · Hindustani
The opening section of a composition. NIOS labels sthayi and antara in both its discussion of dhrupad and its khayal example.
In ‘sthayi varna’, the word instead describes holding or repeating a note. That movement category is covered under Varna.
Also written: sthaayi
- Source: Same book, ch. 4, Study of Forms: Dhrupad and Dhamar, pp. 28–32, §§4.1–4.3, pp. 28–30.
- Source: NIOS, Hindustani Music (242), Book 2: Practical, ch. 1, Chota Khayal, pp. 1–17, pp. 1–2 for a khayal example.
- Svaralipi · Hindustani
Written notation that records notes, registers and rhythm with symbols. Notation helps preserve and study music, but cannot fully replace oral teaching or listening.
Also written: swaralipi, svara lipi, swara lipi
- Source: Same book, ch. 5, Notation System of Hindustani Music, pp. 33–38, §§5.1–5.2, pp. 33–35.
Related: Bhatkhande notation, Swara, Saptak
- Swara · Hindustani
A musical note in Indian music. The seven names are Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni; some have shuddha, komal or tivra forms.
Sa abbreviates Shadja. NIOS calls Sa and Pa achal: they have no komal or tivra forms in this teaching system. This does not assign them a fixed concert pitch.
Also written: svara, swar, swaras, svaras, svars
- Syncopation · Western
A shift of rhythmic emphasis towards a weak beat or between beats, often by sustaining a sound across a stronger position.
Also written: syncopated rhythm, syncopated rhythms
- Source: Mark Gotham, Chelsey Hamm and Bryn Hughes, Other Rhythmic Essentials, “Borrowed Divisions” / “Syncopation”.
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G2 §1; G4 §1.
T
- Taal · Hindustani
A recurring cycle of counted units that organises rhythm. The cycle gives a framework for compositions and rhythmic elaboration.
Also written: tala, tal, taals, talas, tals
- Source: Same book, ch. 3, Elements of Tala, pp. 21–27, §§3.1–3.3.1, pp. 21–22.
- Taali · Hindustani
A clap-marked position in a taal’s hand-counting pattern. Claps distinguish divisions from khali waves and help track the cycle.
Also written: tali, taalis, talis
- Source: Same book, ch. 3, Elements of Tala, pp. 21–27, §§3.3.7–3.3.9, p. 24.
- Source: Ajay Srinivasamurthy, Andre Holzapfel, Kaustuv Kanti Ganguli and Xavier Serra (2017), Aspects of Tempo and Rhythmic Elaboration in Hindustani Music: A Corpus Study, Frontiers in Digital Humanities 4:20, DOI 10.3389/fdigh.2017.00020, Fig. 1 and §3.2.8.
- Taan · Hindustani
A flowing run of notes that elaborates a raag, often at speed. The run still needs to express the raag’s melodic character.
Also written: tan, tana, taans, tans
- Source: Suvarnalata Rao and Preeti Rao (2014), An Overview of Hindustani Music in the Context of Computational Musicology, Journal of New Music Research 43(1), DOI 10.1080/09298215.2013.831109, §5.2, PDF pp. 6–7, respective subheadings.
- Taar · Hindustani
The high register, where a swara lies above its madhya counterpart. Bhatkhande notation marks this register with a dot above the swara.
Also written: tar, tara, taar saptak, tar saptak, tara saptak
- Source: NIOS, Hindustani Music (242), Book 1: Theory, ch. 1, Introduction of Hindustani Music, pp. 1–13, §1.8, pp. 6–7.
- Tempo · Both traditions
The speed of the musical pulse. A tempo word or metronome indication helps musicians judge how quickly the beats pass.
Also written: tempi, tempos
Related: Laya, Note value, Meter
- Thaat · Hindustani
A seven-note parent scale used to group Hindustani raags in Bhatkhande’s classification. A thaat is a classification aid rather than a complete raag to perform.
NIOS describes Bhatkhande’s ten-thaat system. Membership gives a pitch-based grouping; it does not establish identical phrasing or settle every alternative classification.
Also written: thata, thaats, thatas
- Source: Same book, ch. 2, Elements of Raga, pp. 14–20, §2.1, pp. 14–15; §2.2.1, p. 15.
- Source: Achintya Prahlad (2023), Quantifying Alpatva (Scarcity) and Bahutva (Abundance): A Comparative Study of the Scale-identical Hindustānī Rāgas Bhūpālī and Deskār, Analytical Approaches to World Musics 11(1), ¶1–3.
- Theka · Hindustani
A basic pattern of percussion bols that helps identify a taal. The pattern supports accompaniment and can be elaborated.
Also written: thekas, thekaa
- Source: Same book, ch. 3, Elements of Tala, pp. 21–27, §§3.3.4–3.3.5, p. 23.
- Source: Ajay Srinivasamurthy, Andre Holzapfel, Kaustuv Kanti Ganguli and Xavier Serra (2017), Aspects of Tempo and Rhythmic Elaboration in Hindustani Music: A Corpus Study, Frontiers in Digital Humanities 4:20, DOI 10.3389/fdigh.2017.00020, §1.3, Table 2.
- Tie · Western
A connection joining successive notes of the same pitch into one sustained duration. Their written values are added without sounding the second note again.
Also written: ties, tied note, tied notes
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §1; G2 §1; G4 §1.
Related: Note value, Pitch, Articulation
- Tihai · Hindustani
A rhythmic ending formed by repeating a phrase three times. It may lead to sam or to the composition’s returning phrase, the mukhda; sam is not its only possible target.
A calculator must specify the phrase length, any gaps and the chosen target. A sam-targeted calculation models that selected case, not every musical use of a tihai.
Also written: tihaai, tihayi, tihais
- Source: Same project, Rhythm, “Tihai.”
- Timbre · Both traditions
The quality that helps distinguish voices and instruments, even when they produce the same pitch.
Also written: tone colour, tone color
- Source: NIOS, Hindustani Music (242), Book 1: Theory, ch. 1, Introduction of Hindustani Music, pp. 1–13, §§1.3–1.4.1, pp. 2–3.
- Time signature · Western
The numbers in a score that specify written time units and their beat grouping. They do not state the tempo.
In 6/8, six eighth-note units are usually grouped into two dotted-quarter beats. The top number therefore does not always equal the number of felt beats.
Also written: time signatures, time-signature
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §2; G3 §1; G5 §1.
- Source: Mark Gotham, Chelsey Hamm and Kris Shaffer, Simple Meter and Time Signatures, “Terminology” / “Time Signatures”.
- Source: Trinity College London, Theory of Music Syllabus, Grades 1–8, from 2009, online edition April 2026, 36 PDF pages, G7 p. 29.
Related: Meter, Bar, Note value
- Tivra · Hindustani
The raised form of Ma relative to shuddha Ma in Hindustani teaching. The other swaras do not have a tivra form in this system.
The site also uses Tivra as the name of a seven-matra taal. This entry defines the pitch modifier, not that named cycle.
Also written: teevra, tivra ma, teevra ma, tivra swara
- Tonic · Western
The home note of a key or scale. It is scale degree 1, the reference point for naming the other degrees.
Also written: tonics, tonic note
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G1 §4.
- Source: Chelsey Hamm and Bryn Hughes, Major Scales, Scale Degrees, and Key Signatures, “Scale Degrees, Solfège, and Scale-Degree Names.”
Related: Scale degree, Major scale, Cadence
- Transposition · Western
The movement of written or sounding music up or down by a specified interval while preserving its internal pitch relationships.
Also written: transpose, transposing, transposed
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G5 §2.
- Source: Trinity College London, Theory of Music Syllabus, Grades 1–8, from 2009, online edition April 2026, 36 PDF pages, G5 p. 24, Pitch §15 (transposition; corrected from §§17–18), §§17–18 (modulation); G7 p. 29, Pitch §7 (modulation).
Related: Interval, Modulation, Tonic
- Triad · Western
A three-note chord built from a root, third and fifth. Major, minor, diminished and augmented triads differ in their interval structure.
The tonic triad is built on scale degree 1. Root position puts the root in the bass; first and second inversions put the third and fifth there. In tonal harmony, a chord’s function describes its role relative to the key, including stability, preparation and movement towards closure.
Also written: triads, tonic triad, tonic triads
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G4 §4; G5 §4.
- Source: John Peterson, Introduction to Harmony, Cadences, and Phrase Endings, “Introduction to Harmony.”
- Tuplet · Western
A specified number of equal notes fitted into the time normally given to another number. A triplet often places three notes in the time of two.
Also written: tuplets, triplet, triplets, duplet, duplets
- Source: Mark Gotham, Chelsey Hamm and Bryn Hughes, Other Rhythmic Essentials, “Borrowed Divisions” / “Syncopation”.
- Source: ABRSM, Music Theory Syllabus Outline, Grades 1–5, from 2020, one-page outline, G2 §1; G4 §1.
Related: Meter, Note value, Syncopation
V
- Vadi · Hindustani
The leading swara in a named raag teaching description. It helps explain note emphasis within that interpretation.
NIOS describes vadi as the most prominent note. A listed vadi pair belongs to a teaching account; it should not be imposed as the only possible hierarchy in all performances.
Also written: vaadi, vadi swara, vadi svara
- Source: Same book, ch. 2, Elements of Raga, pp. 14–20, §§2.2.6–2.2.9, pp. 17–18.
- Varna · Hindustani
Melodic movement in NIOS’s framework: holding or repeating a note, ascending, descending, or combining these actions.
Also written: varnas
- Vibhag · Hindustani
A smaller division of matras within a taal. Divisions make the cycle easier to follow and need not all contain the same number of units.
Example: NIOS groups Teentaal’s sixteen matras into four divisions of four.
Also written: vibhaag, vibhaga, vibhags, vibhagas
- Source: Same book, ch. 3, Elements of Tala, pp. 21–27, §3.3.6, pp. 23–24.
- Source: Ajay Srinivasamurthy, Andre Holzapfel, Kaustuv Kanti Ganguli and Xavier Serra (2017), Aspects of Tempo and Rhythmic Elaboration in Hindustani Music: A Corpus Study, Frontiers in Digital Humanities 4:20, DOI 10.3389/fdigh.2017.00020, Table 1.
- Vivadi · Hindustani
A swara outside a raag’s regular note use in a named account. NIOS describes some such notes appearing sparingly in particular combinations.
Whether a note is treated as vivadi is source dependent. NIOS’s Bihag example does not settle all interpretations of tivra Ma in Bihag.
Also written: vivaadi, vivadi swara, vivadi svara
- Source: Same book, ch. 2, Elements of Raga, pp. 14–20, §§2.2.6–2.2.9, pp. 17–18.