Hindustani and Western comparison · Lesson 4 of 10 · Sound and pitch in performance
Intonation, ornaments and drone
The notes on a page are only part of a raagRaagA recognisable arrangement of notes and musical behaviour that guides melody. A raag’s identity involves how notes are used, not just a list of pitches.Source: N2 §2.1, pp. 14–15; §2.2.1, p. 15. and 1 moreMore in the glossary. This lesson compares how pitches are tuned, how notes are shaped and joined, and the sound that holds Sa in place. Closure is covered in the lessons on tonic return and on form.
- Strong:
- a shared feature you can count or measure
- Qualified:
- a useful analogy with clear differences
- Context:
- a contrast that teaches, not an equivalence
Topic 12 · Fit: Qualified
Intonation and equal temperament
Learning objective: Separate a keyboard's tuning system from the pitches a performer actually sings or plays.
Rao and Rao describe Hindustani intonation as flexible: the pitch of a swaraSwaraA musical note in Indian music. The seven names are Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni; some have shuddha, komal or tivra forms.Source: N1 §1.7, pp. 4–5. and 1 moreMore in the glossary in performance depends on the raagRaagA recognisable arrangement of notes and musical behaviour that guides melody. A raag’s identity involves how notes are used, not just a list of pitches.Source: N2 §2.1, pp. 14–15; §2.2.1, p. 15. and 1 moreMore in the glossary and its context, and is not fixed to one value.
Western acoustics measures pitch in cents. Equal temperament divides the octave into twelve equal semitones of 100 cents each, 1,200 cents in all; it is the usual tuning of the piano. Other temperaments divide the octave differently.
So a keyboard version of a raagRaagA recognisable arrangement of notes and musical behaviour that guides melody. A raag’s identity involves how notes are used, not just a list of pitches.Source: N2 §2.1, pp. 14–15; §2.2.1, p. 15. and 1 moreMore in the glossary is an equal-tempered approximation. Ragapedia's tools use it as a reference, not as the raagRaagA recognisable arrangement of notes and musical behaviour that guides melody. A raag’s identity involves how notes are used, not just a list of pitches.Source: N2 §2.1, pp. 14–15; §2.2.1, p. 15. and 1 moreMore in the glossary's true intonation.
AUTRIM measures sung pitch against 100-cent lines on purpose. It says a measuring stick should use one unit, and that there is no agreement on the “proper” positions of the notes. Its page on Darbari Kanada adds that its pitch graphs show komalKomalThe lowered form of Re, Ga, Dha or Ni relative to its shuddha form. It describes a swara form, not a soft playing instruction.Source: N1 §1.7, pp. 4–5. and 1 moreMore in the glossary Ga as a series of movements between Re and Ga.
Listen and look
- HindustaniDarbari Kanada sung by Ram Deshpande (AUTRIM video with moving pitch graph)AUTRIM's videos draw the sung pitch as a line over grey reference lines spaced every 100 cents, which are the equal-tempered semitones. At 92–103 seconds watch komalKomalThe lowered form of Re, Ga, Dha or Ni relative to its shuddha form. It describes a swara form, not a soft playing instruction.Source: N1 §1.7, pp. 4–5. and 1 moreMore in the glossary Ga: AUTRIM notes that it first meanders between Re and Ga and then slowly rises, instead of sitting on one fixed pitch.Source: AUTRIM (NCPA), Rag Darbari kanada: performances by Uday Bhawalkar and Ram Deshpande, with timed notes, Ram Deshpande performance notes 92–103
Times and bar numbers come from the linked source. AUTRIM's times are seconds into its video; Raga Records gives counter times or track lengths from its own booklets and programme lists. Ragapedia has not added its own timings.
Where the comparison stops
Neither side is one fixed system. It is not true that all Hindustani notes sit on 22 fixed microtones, and it is not true that all Western music is equal-tempered. Performers in both traditions can move away from a keyboard's tuning.
Sources
- Suvarnalata Rao and Preeti Rao (2014), An Overview of Hindustani Music in the Context of Computational Musicology (author's manuscript), §3.2, PDF p. 3
- UNSW Music Acoustics, Tartini tones and temperament: an introduction for musicians, opening explanation of cents; “Temperaments”
- Suvarnalata Rao and Wim van der Meer, AUTRIM (NCPA and University of Amsterdam), home page: “Explanation of the graphics of the movies”, “Explanation of the graphics of the movies”
- AUTRIM (NCPA), Rag Darbari kanada: performances by Uday Bhawalkar and Ram Deshpande, with timed notes, introduction; Ram Deshpande performance notes 92–103
Topic 13 · Fit: Qualified
MeendMeendA continuous pitch glide connecting notes. Its direction and shape belong to the melodic phrase, rather than being a jump between separate notes.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named mind/meend paragraph.More in the glossary, andolanAndolanA slow pitch oscillation that shapes a note. The movement is learned in a raag’s context, rather than applied identically to every note.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named andol/andolan paragraph.More in the glossary, gamakGamakA forceful pitch movement or oscillation that shapes a note or phrase. Its precise execution depends on the style and melodic context.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named gamak paragraph.More in the glossary and Western ornaments
Learning objective: Name the main Hindustani ornaments and compare them with Western ornaments, glides, string bends and vibrato.
AUTRIM describes several ways of shaping notes: kan, a brief touch of a neighbouring note; meendMeendA continuous pitch glide connecting notes. Its direction and shape belong to the melodic phrase, rather than being a jump between separate notes.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named mind/meend paragraph.More in the glossary, a glide between notes; andolanAndolanA slow pitch oscillation that shapes a note. The movement is learned in a raag’s context, rather than applied identically to every note.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named andol/andolan paragraph.More in the glossary, a slow oscillation; murkiMurkiA quick, compact turn through nearby notes that decorates a note or phrase. The note sequence and delivery depend on the musical context.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named murki paragraph.More in the glossary, a quick turn through nearby notes; and gamakGamakA forceful pitch movement or oscillation that shapes a note or phrase. Its precise execution depends on the style and melodic context.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named gamak paragraph.More in the glossary, a forceful oscillation.
Trinity's Grade 5 syllabus lists Western ornaments: the acciaccatura, the appoggiatura, upper and lower mordents, and the trill. RSL's Grade 3 popular music theory syllabus adds “understanding vibrato”.
Some gestures sound alike, such as a meendMeendA continuous pitch glide connecting notes. Its direction and shape belong to the melodic phrase, rather than being a jump between separate notes.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named mind/meend paragraph.More in the glossary and a slide between notes, or an andolanAndolanA slow pitch oscillation that shapes a note. The movement is learned in a raag’s context, rather than applied identically to every note.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named andol/andolan paragraph.More in the glossary and a vibrato. Their rules differ: in a raagRaagA recognisable arrangement of notes and musical behaviour that guides melody. A raag’s identity involves how notes are used, not just a list of pitches.Source: N2 §2.1, pp. 14–15; §2.2.1, p. 15. and 1 moreMore in the glossary, which notes take an ornament, and how, is part of the raagRaagA recognisable arrangement of notes and musical behaviour that guides melody. A raag’s identity involves how notes are used, not just a list of pitches.Source: N2 §2.1, pp. 14–15; §2.2.1, p. 15. and 1 moreMore in the glossary's grammar.
Open textbooks describe the Western gestures. Schmidt-Jones defines a portamento as a smooth glide between two notes that passes through all the pitches in between. Smith says B.B. King's string bending and wide vibrato, a “shaking” of the notes, sound like the voice.
Library of Congress essays on two recordings describe them in detail. T-Bone Walker's best-known guitar lick bends the G string up from the fourth to the fifth note of the scale. The 1924 recording of Rhapsody in Blue opens with a clarinet glissando, a slide up to a high note.
Listen and look
- HindustaniDarbari Kanada sung by Ram Deshpande (AUTRIM video)AndolanAndolanA slow pitch oscillation that shapes a note. The movement is learned in a raag’s context, rather than applied identically to every note.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named andol/andolan paragraph.More in the glossary: at 4–11 seconds the opening phrase shakes slowly on komalKomalThe lowered form of Re, Ga, Dha or Ni relative to its shuddha form. It describes a swara form, not a soft playing instruction.Source: N1 §1.7, pp. 4–5. and 1 moreMore in the glossary Dha (AUTRIM: “shake (andol)”). MeendMeendA continuous pitch glide connecting notes. Its direction and shape belong to the melodic phrase, rather than being a jump between separate notes.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named mind/meend paragraph.More in the glossary: at 367 seconds a glide (“mind”) joins the lower and middle komalKomalThe lowered form of Re, Ga, Dha or Ni relative to its shuddha form. It describes a swara form, not a soft playing instruction.Source: N1 §1.7, pp. 4–5. and 1 moreMore in the glossary Dha, and at 488 seconds the singer glides from Pa up to the high Sa.Source: AUTRIM (NCPA), Rag Darbari kanada: performances by Uday Bhawalkar and Ram Deshpande, with timed notes, Ram Deshpande performance notes 4–11, 367, 488
- HindustaniHansadhwani sung by Veena Sahasrabuddhe (AUTRIM video)GamakGamakA forceful pitch movement or oscillation that shapes a note or phrase. Its precise execution depends on the style and melodic context.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named gamak paragraph.More in the glossary: AUTRIM marks a “shake (gamak)” at 115–117 seconds.Source: AUTRIM (NCPA), Rag Hansadhwani: performances by Ajoy Chakrabarty and Veena Sahasrabuddhe, with timed notes, Veena Sahasrabuddhe performance notes 115–117
- WesternSonny Boy Williamson, “Nine Below Zero”, live (Smith, Popular Music, 1.5 Urban Blues)Vibrato and bent notes on the harmonica. The textbook asks you to notice how he copies the voice by shaking the notes (vibrato) and bending them. It gives no times.Source: Todd Smith (Western Washington University), Popular Music (CC BY 4.0, LibreTexts), 1.5: Urban Blues, “Sonny Boy Williamson”
- WesternT-Bone Walker, “Call It Stormy Monday But Tuesday is Just as Bad” (1947) (Library of Congress essay)A guitar string bend. The essay describes Walker's best-known lick: he picks the G string and bends it up from the fourth to the fifth note of the scale. It says the lick is heard throughout his music; this slow blues in G has a 12-bar guitar break by Walker. The essay gives no time for the bend.Source: Brian Bader, “Call It Stormy Monday But Tuesday is Just as Bad”—T-Bone Walker (1947), National Recording Registry essay, Library of Congress, pp. 2–3
- WesternGeorge Gershwin and the Paul Whiteman Orchestra, “Rhapsody in Blue” (1924 recording) (Library of Congress essay)A glide at the very start: Ross Gorman's low clarinet trill, then a glissando up to the high concert B♭. The essay says Gershwin wrote a scale run there, and Gorman improvised the glide in rehearsal.Source: Jim Farrington, “Rhapsody in Blue”—George Gershwin, piano; Paul Whiteman Orchestra (1924), National Recording Registry essay, Library of Congress, p. 2
Times and bar numbers come from the linked source. AUTRIM's times are seconds into its video; Raga Records gives counter times or track lengths from its own booklets and programme lists. Ragapedia has not added its own timings.
Where the comparison stops
A similar sound is not the same ornament. A meendMeendA continuous pitch glide connecting notes. Its direction and shape belong to the melodic phrase, rather than being a jump between separate notes.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named mind/meend paragraph.More in the glossary is not simply a portamento or a guitar bend, and an andolanAndolanA slow pitch oscillation that shapes a note. The movement is learned in a raag’s context, rather than applied identically to every note.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named andol/andolan paragraph.More in the glossary is not a vibrato; their shape and role differ. Smith presents bends and vibrato as ways to sound like the voice, while in a raagRaagA recognisable arrangement of notes and musical behaviour that guides melody. A raag’s identity involves how notes are used, not just a list of pitches.Source: N2 §2.1, pp. 14–15; §2.2.1, p. 15. and 1 moreMore in the glossary the notes that take a meendMeendA continuous pitch glide connecting notes. Its direction and shape belong to the melodic phrase, rather than being a jump between separate notes.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named mind/meend paragraph.More in the glossary or andolanAndolanA slow pitch oscillation that shapes a note. The movement is learned in a raag’s context, rather than applied identically to every note.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named andol/andolan paragraph.More in the glossary are set by the raagRaagA recognisable arrangement of notes and musical behaviour that guides melody. A raag’s identity involves how notes are used, not just a list of pitches.Source: N2 §2.1, pp. 14–15; §2.2.1, p. 15. and 1 moreMore in the glossary. Ragapedia's equal-tempered playback cannot demonstrate meendMeendA continuous pitch glide connecting notes. Its direction and shape belong to the melodic phrase, rather than being a jump between separate notes.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named mind/meend paragraph.More in the glossary or andolanAndolanA slow pitch oscillation that shapes a note. The movement is learned in a raag’s context, rather than applied identically to every note.Source: AM “Ornamentation,” named andol/andolan paragraph.More in the glossary.
Not covered yet: No source opened so far names a recording and calls its glide a portamento: the glides named here are a clarinet glissando and blues string bends. The Western sources also give no times for these gestures, unlike AUTRIM's timed notes. CHARM's online book on recorded performance was blocked by a bot check, so it has not been read.
Sources
- AUTRIM (NCPA), Melody, “Ornamentation”
- AUTRIM (NCPA), Rag Darbari kanada: performances by Uday Bhawalkar and Ram Deshpande, with timed notes, Ram Deshpande performance notes 4–11, 367, 488
- AUTRIM (NCPA), Rag Hansadhwani: performances by Ajoy Chakrabarty and Veena Sahasrabuddhe, with timed notes, Veena Sahasrabuddhe performance notes 115–117
- Trinity College London, Theory of Music Syllabus, Grades 1–8, from 2009 (online edition April 2026), Grade 5, p. 23, Pitch §12
- RSL Awards, Learn Music Theory (Popular Music Theory grade specifications), Grade 3, “Music Notation”: “Understanding vibrato”
- Catherine Schmidt-Jones, Understanding Basic Music Theory (CC BY 3.0, LibreTexts), 3.2: Articulation, “Portamento”, Figure 6
- Todd Smith (Western Washington University), Popular Music (CC BY 4.0, LibreTexts), 1.5: Urban Blues, “B.B. King”; “Sonny Boy Williamson”
- Brian Bader, “Call It Stormy Monday But Tuesday is Just as Bad”—T-Bone Walker (1947), National Recording Registry essay, Library of Congress, pp. 2–3
- Jim Farrington, “Rhapsody in Blue”—George Gershwin, piano; Paul Whiteman Orchestra (1924), National Recording Registry essay, Library of Congress, p. 2
Topic 14 · Fit: Qualified
Tanpura drone and pedal pointPedal pointA note held or repeated while the harmony above it changes. Tonic and dominant pedal points are common teaching examples.Source: TR G6 p. 27, Pitch §10. Curriculum anchor.More in the glossary
Learning objective: Compare the tanpura drone with a Western pedal pointPedal pointA note held or repeated while the harmony above it changes. Tonic and dominant pedal points are common teaching examples.Source: TR G6 p. 27, Pitch §10. Curriculum anchor.More in the glossary.
In a Hindustani performance, the tanpura sounds a steady drone built on Sa, against which every note of the melody is heard. AUTRIM describes it as part of the usual performance set-up.
A Western pedal pointPedal pointA note held or repeated while the harmony above it changes. Tonic and dominant pedal points are common teaching examples.Source: TR G6 p. 27, Pitch §10. Curriculum anchor.More in the glossary is a note held or repeated, often in the bass, while the harmony above it changes. Trinity asks Grade 6 students to recognise pedal pointsPedal pointA note held or repeated while the harmony above it changes. Tonic and dominant pedal points are common teaching examples.Source: TR G6 p. 27, Pitch §10. Curriculum anchor.More in the glossary on the tonic and dominant.
Raga Records credits a tanpura player on two releases in Ragapedia's archive, listed below. Ragapedia has not annotated the drone in these recordings.
The tanpura is not always tuned Sa–Pa. AUTRIM notes that for Bageshri the first string is tuned to Ma, to support that note.
Listen and look
- HindustaniBageshri sung by Padma Talwalkar (AUTRIM video)AUTRIM notes that the performance opens on the background of a tanpura tuned m S S S (Ma, then Sa). At 65–70 seconds the singer holds Ma, the note the tanpura is also tuned to.Source: AUTRIM (NCPA), Rag Bageshri: performance by Padma Talwalkar, with timed notes, performance notes, opening and 65–70
- WesternBach, Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, Prelude 1 in C major, BWV 846 (Hutchinson, Figure 10.8.1)Hutchinson's figure shows a score excerpt with a pedal pointPedal pointA note held or repeated while the harmony above it changes. Tonic and dominant pedal points are common teaching examples.Source: TR G6 p. 27, Pitch §10. Curriculum anchor.More in the glossary: one note held while the harmonies above it change. The embedded recording plays that passage; the page sets it to start at 1:57 and stop at 2:17.Source: Robert Hutchinson, Music Theory for the 21st-Century Classroom (GNU FDL), §10.8 Pedal Point, Figure 10.8.1
Times and bar numbers come from the linked source. AUTRIM's times are seconds into its video; Raga Records gives counter times or track lengths from its own booklets and programme lists. Ragapedia has not added its own timings.
Named performances in the archive
- Nayan Ghosh — San Rafael, 1999 · RAGA-224Shree · Alap, jor and gats · tintalNayan Ghosh (sitar); Mallar Ghosh (tabla); Sumita Chatterjee (tanpura)
- Vasant Rai — New York, 1981 · RAGA-226Darbari Kanada · AlapVasant Rai (sarod); Ananda Gopal Bandopadhyay (tabla); Kokila Rai (tanpura)
Programme labels come from Raga Records, the publisher. Ragapedia has not annotated these recordings.
Where the comparison stops
A pedal pointPedal pointA note held or repeated while the harmony above it changes. Tonic and dominant pedal points are common teaching examples.Source: TR G6 p. 27, Pitch §10. Curriculum anchor.More in the glossary is usually one passage inside a piece. The tanpura usually sounds through much of a performance and holds Sa as the reference for every note.
Sources
- AUTRIM (NCPA), Performance, “Performance set-up”
- AUTRIM (NCPA), Tonal system, “Svar”
- AUTRIM (NCPA), Rag Bageshri: performance by Padma Talwalkar, with timed notes, introduction; performance notes, opening and 65–70
- Trinity College London, Theory of Music Syllabus, Grades 1–8, from 2009 (online edition April 2026), Grade 6, p. 27, Pitch §10
- Robert Hutchinson, Music Theory for the 21st-Century Classroom (GNU FDL), §10.8 Pedal Point, Figure 10.8.1
Related pages
Ragapedia wrote these comparisons by combining separately cited Hindustani and Western sources. No source institution has endorsed them, and a musician has not reviewed this lesson.